Corporate Social Responsibility in the C0-Operative Bank Essay

1. Introduction This report aims to review the corporate social responsibility (CSR) models which managers should consider important when deciding their CSR stance. The report will also review the corporative bank and their stakeholders regarding CSR. The report will then go on to analyse and evaluate the corporative bank’s CSR and ethical position. 2. Corporate Social Responsibility Corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a topic has received the attention of organisations and managers as a whole. The 1950s marked the start of the modern era of CSR for managers, where Howard R. Bowen (1953) defines social responsibilities in his publication as the businesses’ duty to make decision and follow principles that are acceptable to society. However, Milton Friedman (1970) argued that social responsibilities is for people not businesses, he claims that the only responsibility business managers should have is to use all their resources to maximise profit and increase shareholder’s wealth (Friedman, York Times Magazine, September 13, 1970, pp. 32-34). 2.1 Carroll’s CSR Models In 1979, Carroll developed a social responsibility model with a hierarchy of four responsibilities, starting from economic, moving to legal, ethical and discretionary responsibilities (see fig. 1.1). This CSR model talks about responsibilities which are the main areas that managers should consider when taking a stance on CSR. The summarised views of Carroll’s hierarchy are businesses should strike to make profit as their main priority, and then complies with the rules and regulations of the law; also behave ethically and finally be good corporate citizen (Carroll, 1979, p.500). The hierarchical four responsibility model was later improved by Carroll in 1991 as â€Å"pyramid of corporate social responsibility† (see Fig. 1.2). 2.2 Modern CSR Arguments As the definition of CSR developed and gain more attention over the years, more arguments over CSR began emerge. In reviewing CSR, both Goyder (2003) and Moore (2003) argued that firms claiming CSR in expectation of achieving greater profitability is unethical. Firms should take up CSR only if they can ensure positive impact on society and the environment. Even though Jones (2003) argued that managers must not use CSR as a business strategy but should see it as an ethical stance. However, he does not believe firms taking advantage of the opportunity to make profit is unethical. (Wan Saiful wan-Jan, 2006, pp.176-184) 2.3 Introduction of 3C-SR Model In order to counter the deficiencies of previous approaches, Meehan et al (2006) devised the 3C-SR model- â€Å"competitive advantage through â€Å"social resources†Ã¢â‚¬ . This model claims that Corporate Responsibility (CR) is a tool to making profit not ways of reducing revenue. This model is made up of three inter-related components, ethical and social commitment, connection with partners and consistency of behaviour. According to Meehan et al, if management encompasses all three elements it will build a strong corporate social performance and become a good corporate citizen. (Meehan et al, 2006). However, the models has not been based on observations and experiments, also there was no criticisms by other authors. It is subjective base and was not well supported. 3. The Co-operative Bank and Their Stakeholders The Co-operative bank is a part of the co-operative group, the largest consumer co-operative in the United Kingdom (UK). The bank offers a range of financial services such as saving accounts, current accounts loans and overdrafts. They are an organisation that makes profit consistently while operating in a socially and environmentally responsible manner by putting their ethics into action (www.co-operativebank.co.uk). The Co-operative Bank is sensitive to the needs of all their stakeholders (see fig 1.3). It aspires to meet common economic, social, environmental and cultural needs of their stakeholders. Stakeholder of a company is anyone who has can be affected or can affect the company’s actions or decisions. The co-operative bank acts quickly on relevant and important stakeholder concerns. Engagement with their stakeholders is an important continuous activity. The cooperative bank’s CSR stance of responsible finance which consists of ethical screening, financial inclusion and microfinance is important to each of their stakeholders. (Co-operative bank sustainability policy, 2010) 4. THE CO-OPERATIVE BANK’S CSR and ETHICAL STANCE ANALYSIS 4.1 Sethi’s Three-Stage Schema Sethi’s three-stage schema is useful in determining and analysing the Co-operative bank’s adjustments of their corporate behaviour to social needs. There are three categories of social commitments; social obligation, social responsibility and social responsiveness (Sethi 1975, pp. 58-64, cited Carroll, 1979). Social obligation refers to companies behaving in response to market forces or legal restrictions. Managers of such companies only limit their response to social issues which are guided by law and the economic system. Social responsibility is corporations acknowledging social values and expectations also the importance of ethics. Whilst social responsiveness states that it is important for firms to search for ways to be socially responsibly in the continuous changing society in the long run than how to react to social pressures (Sethi 1975, pp. 58-64). Co-operative bank is continuously searching for ways to be socially and ethically responsible to meet to match the dynamic social system. They are constantly coming up with ethical policies either to meet suppliers needs or customers needs. They plan to the most socially responsible business in the UK. The bank is also making profit maintaining their economic duty to be successful. (http://www.co-operative.coop/join-the-revolution/our-plan/responsible-finance) 4.2 The 3C-SR Model Ethical and Social commitments: This element represents the values aspect of social resources. This component comprises of the promises that organisation made to their stakeholders, also the ethical standards set by them which are stated in their mission statement and goals. (Meehan et al, 2006). The Co-operative bank seeks to be the leading retail bank in global financial services industry. They have been operating with values that have been handed down by the founders which are social responsibility, openness and honesty. They aim; ââ€" ª To be profitable ââ€" ª To meet customers and community needs ââ€" ª To respond to members and give them a fair return ââ€" ª To be an ethical leader and exemplary employer in order to inspire others The Bank is very committed to delivering value to their stakeholders. In 1992 they launched their ethical policy when the customers requested that they would like their money to be invested ethically. The policy was formed to reflect customers’ ethical concern not that of the managers. The bank practice ethics in action by turning away businesses that are involve in unethical practices (fossil fuel extraction, child labour etc). The bank’s suppliers gets paid fair price and there is effective communication between them and the bank, which leads long term relationship. With the banks fantastic delivering value policy some customers and employees are yet to be satisfied. (The co-operative bank sustainability report) The Co-operative Asset Management (TCAM) ensures that there is gender balance within their banks employees and also there is no discrimination. In 2010, the bank extended this policy to other companies they do business with (The co-operative bank sustainability report, 2010, p112). Connections with partners in the value network Norman and Ramirez (1993, p69, cited Meehan et al) claims that a business network gets value from a value creating system in which all the stakeholders and the business itself work to together to create value. Meehan et al believe that if anyone of the parties fails to embrace the value network structure, then the socially oriented business model is bound to fail. If one organisation chooses to associate with another organisation, the nature of that relationship should be based on credibility on both parties, then the value structure works. In the other if on party fails to meet the commitment of the other then a stakeholder deficit will occur (see fig 1.4). The Co-operate bank ensures that their corporate customers share the same values with them as in gender equality and anti-discrimination through their TCAM. There is also their ethical screening which helps them maintain the ethical finance image. The ongoing employee, members and customers survey ensure that the connection between them and the bank is still there (The co-operative bank sustainability report). Consistency of behaviour The consistency element refers to organisations implementing their policy to conform to the commitments and maintain the performance in the long term. It is the behavioural component of the social resources over time and across all aspects of an organisations operation. The common source of criticism is when businesses claims to be socially responsible and fails to act responsibly towards society. (Meehan et al) The Co-operative bank’s ethical policies and social responsibilities have been improved to meets stakeholders needs and maintained over the years. The bank has been consistent with a satisfaction survey for their employees called â€Å"the Voice† carried out twice a year. They have also maintained their investments to their local communities and society at large over the years (The co-operative bank sustainability report). Ethical investment policy generated in 1992 is still an ongoing process for the bank (http://www.thenews.coop). In maintaining this policy, the bank is loose out on income resulting to a reduction in income for turning business away. 5. Conclusion This report has reviewed some of the different CSR theories and models that are important to managers when they are deciding on their CSR approaches. The report also reviewed how CSR has been evolving over the years with theories and models of different scholars. The co-operative bank engages their stakeholders in all their CSR approaches which help them to understand the stakeholders better. The bank understands the fact that a successful business occur only when all the stakeholders work together with mutual ethical values. Using the sethi’s three stage schema and the 3C-SR model to evaluate the Co-operative bank, it is quite clear that the bank is an ethically and socially responsible corporation. Even thought they are losing income and spending a lot to remain ethically and socially responsible they still insist on maintaining ethical policy. On the other hand the benefits of sustaining their ethical policy out weight the losses being made. The bank made a more profit in 2010 than 2009. The bank is not only using CSR as a business strategy but they are also being sensitive to all the needs of their stakeholders including positive impact the environment. REFERENCES Articles Carroll, A.B. (1979), â€Å"A Three-Dimensional Conceptual Model of Corporate Performance†, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 4, No.4, pp. 497-505 Bowen, H.R. (1953), Social Responsibilities of the Businessman, Harper, New York, NY. Carroll, A.B. (1991), The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: towards the moral the moral management of organizational stakeholders†, Business Horizons, July/August, pp. 39-40 Carroll, A.B. (1998), â€Å"The four Faces of Corporate Citizenship†, Business and society Review Vol.100 No.1, pp.1-7 Friedman, M., (1970) â€Å"The Social responsibility of business is to increase its profit†, York Times Magazine, September 13 1970, pp. 32-34). Meehan, J; Meehan, K; Richards, A. (2006), â€Å"Corporate Social Responsibility: the 3C-SR model†, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 33, pp.386 – 398 Sethi, S.P. ((1975), â€Å"Dimensions of corporate social responsibility†, California Management Review, Vol. 17, No.3, pp. 58-64 Wan Saiful Wan-Jan, (2006), â€Å"Defining Corporate Social responsibility†, Vol. 6, Issue 3-4, pp. 176-184

Understand How To Safeguard The Wellbeing Of Children And Young People

There is much more to Safeguarding than just protecting children from direct abuse. Any service that works with children and young people knows that they have a much wider responsibility than simply protecting the children from neglect and abuse. An action plan was put in place by Her Majesty’s Government called the ‘Stay Safe’ action plan, and it identifies a number of important features in the wider view of safeguarding including:†¢Keeping children safe from accidents†¢Crime and bullying – This could be helping victims of crime and also helping those that commit crime. This could also be witness's that need support Bullying could be racially motivated, cyber, text. Making sure that children and parents are given the information to protect themselves†¢Forced marriages†¢Missing children – This aims to develop an action plan to put the principles set out in The Children’s Society recommendations into action, to initiate an e arly review of emergency accommodation provision, to consider how local authorities can best provide safe places and ‘breathing spaces’ for young runaways; and revise the Missing from Home and Care guidance, in conjunction with the review of the Children Act 1989 regulations and guidance.†¢Actively promoting their welfare in a healthy and safe environment – The Staying Safe action plan states that it is important that everyone (parents, practitioners, government) work together to create the healthiest, safest environment possible for children and young people to access wherever they are, whether they’re at home, school/nursery, on public transport or just outside playing. It is everyone’s responsibility to create this safe environment so that all young people can achieve and are getting the best support possible.The Staying Safe consultation document set out three levels of safeguarding: †¢Universal safeguarding – Working to keep al l children and young people safe and create safe environments for all children†¢Targeted safeguarding – Some groups of children are more at risk than others, and it is important to target policies and services to these groups, to help keep them safe from harm†¢Responsive safeguarding – Unfortunately, no matter what we do, there  will always be some children and young people who suffer harm. We need to respond quickly and appropriately when this happens – supporting children and dealing with those who harm them.

The main function of the Best Recipe Kitchens is to manufacture, supply, sell and install kitchens

The main function of the Best Recipe Kitchens is to manufacture, supply, sell and install kitchens. They do this by making kitchens and providing the customers with the right product sizes. Customers * Individual members of the public come and visit any showroom. * Industrial customers from clubs and restaurants do buy kitchens from them. * The also have companies from developing housing associations. Goods Supplied The company supply's many products which they have manufacturing or besides even manufacturing they order the products from different suppliers and supply them to their customers. * Base units * Wall units * Worktops * Plinths * Bins * Vegetable baskets * Towel rails * Cookers * Washing Machines * Dishwashers * Fridges * Freezers * Waste Pipes * Sockets * Cables All the showrooms have three main sections; – 1. Sales 2. Administration 3. Installations. Sales In this department there is a head who is sales manager the makes sure when a sale is confirmed the member of the staff who handled the sale at the time gets' commission. In their usual salary. * The sales department also hands marketing which has it's own head but still under sales manager. * The marketing Director is responsible for advertising and promoting Best Recipe Kitchens for steady income and to increase sales. * In the sales department the sales staffs that take their time and plan a kitchen on the computer software will make the sales. Administration There is a head of the section is a supervisor. * This department is responsible for all the ICT tasks and administration staff as well. * The department of administration is responsible for sending faxes and ordering goods. * They also send letters to the customers. * Some of the staff check invoices and payments. * They also do a bit of accounts work such as calculations and Humans Resources work. * They put up software's. They also print out the work. But there are varity of printer connected to the network e.g. laser and inkjet. Installation * Installation manger hires people to install kitchens to their customers. * When an order is confirmed the installation manager sends the order so the schedule can be arranged for the contractors as well as the engineer. * At the end of the small process the manager has to produce a whole report at the end of each week. Suppliers There are various suppliers but mainly are related to the warehouse. The warehouse orders goods if they don't manufacture a product in their factories. The suppliers also supply electrical and gas appliance. However The Production manager with warehouse has a very close contact with other suppliers. The warehouse manger is responsible for ordering kitchen fittings, plumbing and electrical goods. But the Production manager only confirms the (missing items) orders by fax. This is a structural diagram for Head office: – Structural diagram for a showroom: – Task 2 Handing The information that is required is who will be buying the kitchen. Where the kitchens are going to come from or to be delivered. What components are needed? How the payment is going to make and how long will it take. So a client will be buying kitchens of their choice. This information is collected and sent to the warehouse where they find the product manually if some merchandise is not manufactured by the company they will purchase them from other companies. The warehouse manager will also be making a contact to the installation manager who signs the contractor and sends the appointment by post, a person will go to take measurement of the kitchen. He will report back to ensure the products have the right measurements. The client pays the payment of 25% to a sales person after the measurements are taken and every thing is cleared a kitchen will be installed. The sales section will collect customer's address and their name also a contact number on a computer in the showroom. And he sends an order form at home. The information is obtained from the order forms, which are given to the customers by post and returned when completed by a completion date. When the information is collected a clerk (from the forms) will input to a computer and this is given to the administration department, which looks at the data and check the order on a hard copy manually. The important details are the order, the addresses and the conformation with the client. The process how an order is placed and how the company keeps in their standards is the order form is returned and the data is inputted in a computer and printed a hard company, which goes to the warehouse where a person manually searches to a product. The warehouse manager faxes the information to the production manager who confirms the order and sends it back to the warehouse manager by fax. The warehouse manager then contacts the suppliers by post. Finally the warehouse manager informs the installation manager who places the order to the clerk who purchases the order for any other appliances required and post them to the appropriate manufacturers. There orders include the customers name and addresses so the goods will be delivered to the customer's house or place. The clerk also sends a conformation letter to the client for installation data also the receipt of the deposit. Also the price of 50% must be paid before all installation is completed. Computers make all the calculations from the purchase receipts and the order forms. All The calculations are made on a computer by the Accounts Department who collects the data on a computer and sends the invoices to the relevant departments or to the relevant people. There are various outputs to the ordering process, which are issued. For example a printed copy is sent by post to the warehouse manager. The warehouse manager sends a fax to the production manager who sends the result back. The warehouse manager sends another letter to the suppliers. Then the warehouse manager sends a letter to the installation manager to confirm the appointment and the whole file is handed to the clerk. This is a Data Flow Diagram of how the customer buys a kitchen from a showroom and companies process to get the order through. This data flow diagram shows when an order is conformed this is how it is processed. Task 3 ICT system used in Head office is linked in a LAN with a single server. Each department has at least one workstation. All workstations are linked with a fast laser printer. The department does have inkjet printer for any one off or confidencail documents. All information is stored in the server and the software's are stored on the same server. The Accounts Department keeps the records of all financial transaction on the servers. The Human Recourses department has to keep the records of its entire staff personal details such as: – * Personal detail (name, address, DOB, emergency contact) * Job (which sector) * Salary or hourly rate * Commission earned * Normal hours * Availability * Hours worked * Medical plans The system in a showroom is not very complex. The system contains various software and is linked with a modem. Three machines with in each showroom are linked with a LAN. The system has word-processing and other general office software's. This system was for a Administration at the back but with out where customers are in the showroom, there are two computers which are stand alone and contain kitchen designed software's. The computers have a TFT screen. The system that is available is fine but needs a lot more work done on it. We can improve the system by allowing the computer that are in the showroom and are designed to make example kitchen design, for those to each linked to a LAN. This will ensure that if a system is down the records are safe. Also a rough plan or designing can be given to the installation department to see now a customer wants his kitchen. If there is any error occurs they can make the adjustments before hand. This will also benefit as the laser colour printers are used only one will be required. With these two computer load up a data base where the customers personal detail can be captured instead of the customer going to the processing clerk. As from the help of LAN the Administration department can capture the data. As the administration has a modem they can send this data to other department such as Accounts of the warehouse. This will save the company a lot of as well as time. as an other disadvantage of a stand alone system is that every thing has to be printed and this will save money for the company. But these computer allocated in the public might have danger of some one unauthorised person using the data and going on to confidential files, so a password will be given and users accounts can be made. EDI From the new technology the Best Recipe Kitchens is far behind to a modern technology such as an EDI (Electronic Data Interchange), which allows the company to do the dealing such as ordering. It is a speedy way of ordering and bookings. The company can make a lot of money by fast systems. No matter what account the invoices can be transferred quickly and instead of passing they can just transfer the data with a click of a button. In a company if the stock goes low it can alert you or even order new stock. It can handle companies' transaction with in there own budgets. This system is really accurate and can eliminate errors. MIS MIS (manager information system) can help managers to do their work more quickly and more efficiently. With this the information comes as a report to the managers. With this if the Best Recipe Kitchens has it the managers can work twice as fast in a way the production manager works like MIS. The production manager requires one or two more people then ha can work much faster. The installation manager can work by himself, as he has to hire contractors. But if we see with MIS he can work much faster with being more accurate. This can also allow the managers to work together as everything is supplied before as reports are made for the mangers so they can decide. This can help accounts manger as well as he can see how much is coming and going. As sales can be analysed in monthly graphs and all the departments can use graphs as well. As warning audio, video can warn if anything goes to a limit. They can even use what if queries to resolve any query to see the out come and if it comes low or to an inappropriate inquest, then they can find an alternative. As all managers can see each other's work and their report and suggest improvement or to even come to a decision. They can create a graph on sale and make a report. This can promote some people in some sectors. This will make the work in the company more efficient.

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Social eek 2 - Essay Example This is with regards to distribution of pretax income in the economy. There are a number of advantages and disadvantages linked to greater income equality. Greater income equality helps fight some of the social evils in society including social exclusion and poverty among the poor. Secondly, it leads to improved provision of basic facilities including health education and leads to higher social mobility. On the contrary, improved economic equality leads to lack of motivation by the poor to work hard since income is distributed equally (Desilver, 2013). Secondly, it leads to poor innovation and new skills since the rich contribute towards the payment of taxes that are distributed equally. Greater income equality can be achieved in various ways. First, the cycle of poverty should be broken by increasing low incomes (Ellyat, 2013). Secondly, high incomes should be lowered closer to the average income (Bartels, 2008). Finally, the cycle of privilege that inhibits social mobility and cements inequality should be eliminated. Desilver, D. (2013, December 5). U.S. income inequality, on rise for decades, is now highest since 1928. Retrieved from

Chemistry questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Chemistry questions - Essay Example -0.0005 33.4 -1.49701E-05 -0.00428 127.7 0.003 0.000012 2.12833333 -0.0005 38.5 -1.2987E-05 -0.00433 173.3 0.0025 0.00001 2.88833333 -0.0005 45.6 -1.09649E-05 -0.00439 229.1 0.002 0.000008 3.81833333 -0.0005 55.8 -8.96057E-06 -0.00448 301 0.0015 0.000006 5.01666667 -0.0005 71.9 -6.9541E-06 -0.00464 402.4 0.001 0.0000039 6.70666667 -0.0005 101.4 -4.93097E-06 -0.00493 575.6 0.0005 0.000002 9.59333333 -0.0005 173.2 -2.88684E-06 -0.00577 pseudo-order rate constant = average of the rate constant (-0.00459) Section 3 12. Which of the transformations shown is a substitution reaction A substitution reaction is one in which a functional group is replaced by another in a chemical reaction, functional group are a group of atoms within a molecule that are responsible for chemical reactions, therefore the substitution reaction is A. 13. Which of the transformations shown is an addition reaction An additional reaction is one in which one or more molecules combine to form a new and larger molecule and this in turn reduces the degree of unsaturation, they are the reverse of an elimination reaction, our answer is C. 14. Statement 1 Reaction 17A will proceed faster than reaction 17B. (Assume the same concentrations of substrate and reagents.) BECAUSE Statement 2 Reaction 17A will proceed mainly via an SN2 mechanism whereas Reaction 17B will proceed mainly via an SN1 mechanism. D Both statements are true but Statement 2 is not a correct explanation of Statement 1. 15. Statement 1 Reaction 18 will give product 18A rather than product 18B. BECAUSE Statement 2 Elimination by the E2 mechanism proceeds via an antiperiplanar conformation. You are asked first to decide whether each statement of the pair is true or false, and then, if both statements are true, to decide...The change of concentration of phenolphthalein (phth) with time is given in the table shown. A substitution reaction is one in which a functional group is replaced by another in a chemical reaction, functional group are a group of atoms within a molecule that are responsible for chemical reactions, therefore the substitution reaction is An additional reaction is one in which one or more molecules combine to form a new and larger molecule and this in turn reduces the degree of unsaturation, they are the reverse of an elimination reaction, our answer is 19. The following questions concern the molecules SF4 (central atom S) and BrF3 (central atom Br). In order to answer these questions, you will find it useful to use VSEPR theory to determine the shapes of SF4 and BrF3, and also to find the symmetry elements in both species and determine the point groups. 23. Four reagents in the Key for Q32 are employed in a sequence of reactions (steps 1, 2, 3 and 4) to convert m-bromonitrobenzene into m-bromobenzoic acid (32). Reagents B and D are used for steps 1 and 2 respectively. In the spaces in the Key, type the appropriate labels of the two reagents most suitable for steps 3 and 4. 25.Select the most likely structure for the compound that gives rise to the 13C NMR spectrum with peaks at the following positions (given as /ppm) with the off-resonance

The Signalman Essay Example for Free

The Signalman Essay There is an immediate sense of the unknown. The first line in the story is Halloa, below there! . This opens the story with a sense of mystery. There are two people unknown to each other, one high, and the other below. The narrator is seen as the being in the presence of light and the signalman is in the dark. This is an extreme contrast to suggesting there is a sense of difference between the two characters. The description of the railway cutting is extremely dark. His past was in a solitary and dismal place as I ever saw. On either side a dripping wet wall of jagged stone, excluding all view but a strip of sky. The description describes a very depressing place, almost reminding the reader of Hell, or something equivalent. This gives the reader the feeling of a bad place, which builds up tension, suspense, and suspicion, as to what will happen in this horrible cutting. We are also given a vivid description of the Signalmans character. As the story continues, we see the Signalmans character develop into a professional man. We find out he is a very educated man, but ran wild at university, thus being expelled. A student of natural philosophy, and attended lectures, but had run wild, misused his opportunities, gone down and never risen again. We also find out he has other qualities, which are being reliable and dutiful. We see this when he stops in mid-sentence in order to carry out his duties on the line. I observed him to be remarkably exact and vigilant, breaking of his discourse at a syllable, and remaining until what he had to do was done This leads us to believe the Narrator became impressed and interested by the Signalman. Through the Signalmans haunting we can also see other sides of him. We see he has a lot of fear, of the haunting. We can especially see this in his language in following his long conversation with the visitor, What is the danger? Where is the danger? . These short sharp sentences show the fear in the signalman. We could also see this when the traveller introduces himself, as this is where we get the first hints of the Signalmans instability and fear. He believes he has seen the traveller before and when asked where He pointed to the red light he had looked at, there. We know the Signalman is showing fear at this point as he speaks in a low voice. The language used by Dickens is suitably old fashioned, which suits it as nowadays the most popular ghost stories were written in the 19th century, Though in a subordinate position, still he held a most important trust, and would I like to stake my own life on the chances of his continuing to execute it with precision? As you can see, the style of writing is quite complicated and written in the familiar old fashioned Victorian style. Dickens use of adjectives to create a menacing and supernatural atmosphere is typical of ghost stories. The cutting which is overshadowed by trees leaving little light to shine through is described as a dungeon suggesting a claustrophobic and imprisoned atmosphere which is typical of a ghost story. Rarely are ghost stories set in wide sprawling open spaces and this is no exception. Dickens describes the tunnel as having a gloomy entrance and the actual tunnel itself being black and the signal box as dismal. But he then goes onto describe the mouth of the tunnel as described as having a barbarous, depressing and forbidding air and then the narrator feels as though he had left the natural world like he had entered hell. Kasim Hassan Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Miscellaneous section.

The Ultimate Goal Of JIT

The Ultimate Goal Of JIT JIT is a Japanese concept. Also called the Toyota production system, it aims at producing the necessary parts in quantities needed, at the time they are required. The ultimate goal of JIT is to eliminate inventory, to have minimal work in process inventory monitored by reduction in working capital. JIT considers 7 types of wastes. Overproduction producing more than the customer needs Transportation Anywhere where goods are moved within a process Waiting where waiting time occurs, traditionally where one process waits for another to finish before it can start. Inventory typified by stock or materials that are not being used in the process or current activity. Motion Poor planning and organizational layout often cause motion waste Over processing where steps occur in the production process that do not add value to the end customer this is termed overproduction Defects The process results in an error or requires rework JIT divides all works into value adding and non-value adding activities and then eliminates all non value adding activities. Kanban is one means through which JIT is achieved. It is a scheduling system that tells you what to produce, when to produce it, and how much to produce Poka-yoke is a Japanese term that means fail-safing or mistake-proofing. Its purpose is to eliminate product defects by preventing, correcting, or drawing attention to human errors as they occur. Autonomation describes a feature of machine design to affect the principle of jidoka. At Toyota this usually means that if an abnormal situation arises the machine stops and the worker will stop the production line. Kaizen refers to the philosophy or practices that focus upon continuous improvement of processes in manufacturing, engineering, supporting business processes, and management. Literature review Weiters (1984) in one of the first literatures on this topic states that Financial justification of JIT in service industries is less likely but in service industries JIT offers intangible benefits in terms of improved service quality and customer satisfaction.(cited by Inman and Mehra 1990) Benson (1986) was the first to point out Service operations are organised systems of production processes with the same potential of improvement through implementation of JIT precepts as manufacturing operations Cited by Duclos et. al. 1995 Berling and Geppi (1989) studied the supply chain of healthcare sector and offered JIT as an approach to hospitals in order to reduce inventory. They suggested closer relationships between hospitals and distributors. Billesbach and Schniederjans (1989) present a case study on JIT application in an administration setting. The case was on a big corporation and JIT programme was implemented in the headquarters of this corporation. Their approach was based on examining activities and the ones not contributing to result to be eliminated. Inman and Mehra (1990) had worked on FedEx. This package delivery company implements JIT to reduce their inventory of quasi-MRO goods (mainly packaging, labelling supplies).aimed at improving their service quality and competitiveness through implementation of JIT and anticipated that inventories would be reduced as a result. Lee (1990) presents a case study of a small bank. Study is focused on this banks loan approval process. Bank follows a two phase process and first evaluates the applications and makes the decision of lending in second phase. This process usually takes 12 days. Applying JIT approach whole process is redesigned and several tasks are unified. New approval process takes 4-5 days. Wasco et. al.( 1991) presents a case Kodaks quality assurance division. This division provides services to worldwide chain of Kodak. An MRP II system is implemented with JIT approach and conclusion of the study is JIT techniques enhance the potential of MRP application. One of the most radical case studies is presented by Barlow (2002). He investigates the applicability of JIT techniques to hotel industry. Weakness of this study is it concentrates on liquor stocks of these hotels and draws conclusions on if statements and these hotels actually do not adopt any JIT techniques. Ruiz (2003 pp.1) JIT focuses on the process, not product. Therefore it can be applied (in theory) to any group of processes, whether manufacturing or service. Ultimate goal of JIT is to produce a good and a service without waste Literature on the matter quite confidently states that JIT can be applied in services and through reported case studies evidence is provided. JIT applications in service industries are vague in some sense. There are no empirical studies and reported case usually resembles manufacturing setting. Service operations management evolution How to implement JIT in services? A philosophy of manufacturing excellence based on pursuit of the planned elimination of all waste and consistent improvement of productivity. It encompasses the successful execution of all manufacturing activities required to produce a final product from design engineering to delivery and including all stages from conversion of raw material onward (APICS, 1992). Total visibility of equipment, people, material and processes; Synchronization and balance of production to sales and supply to production; Respect for people Line operators is responsible for production, problem solving and improvement; Flexibility adapt production to customer needs; Continuous improvement never satisfied with the process; Responsibility for the operations environment those who design, manage and operate the processes are responsible for the outcome; Holistic approach companywide philosophy of elimination of waste; Each of these JIT themes may be applicable to service organizations; Synchronization and balance of information and work flow matching output with customer demand one of the important aspects of service operations often cannot inventory the output of their processes making balance even more vital Semantodontics, a direct marketing company selling nationwide by catalogue to dentists, also found JIT an appropriate approach for reducing the time to process paperwork (Conant, 1988) and, hence, the time required for a dentist to receive an order. The idea of making lot sizes as small as possible was implemented by decreasing the batch size in which telephone orders were aggregated. As a result, telephone orders were moved to the second stage of the process three times daily rather than once a day, as was the previous norm. Set-up time for entering new customer records was reduced by moving the process to the original telephone operation where the data were first gathered. The decrease in order batch size had a behavioural impact on employees as well. From the sense of satisfaction gained on completion of multiple small batches, employees tended to work faster and more efficiently. Atlantic Envelope Company uses kanban trays at its Atlanta facility to move documents within the order entry department. Order entry time fell to under a day from a previous uncertain number of days. Total visibility of all components of the process Northern Telecom Inc.s (NTI) Customer Service Centre borders the traditional manufacturing environment (Savage-Moore, 1988) and the implementation is a good example of providing visibility through the use of work cells. This unit of NTI has the labour-intensive responsibility of repairing printed circuit packs (PCPs). For an individual PCP, it is difficult to predefine the specific repair process required, not unlike a job shop environment. The work cell concept was applied to keep all work on a PCP performed within a single cell and by one team of employees. This provided all employees repairing a PCP with visibility as to the repair needs and processes used to repair the product. Additionally, employees were cross-trained to staff the cells and jobs were redefined to recognize employee training efforts. Over a two-year period, NTI saw customer service levels increase from 85 per cent to 100 per cent and quality levels significantly improved. Work-in-progress inventory was reduced b y 75 per cent and repair cycle times reduced from one week to less than 48 hours. Continuous improvement of the process The Manufacturing Quality Assurance Organization at Kodak in Rochester, New York provides specialized services in the form of sample testing of photographic film, chemical and environmental testing, equipment development and calibration control. JIT precepts were introduced to provide a framework for involving the entire organization in continuous improvement (Wasco et al., 1991). Fifty JIT cells were established to start the JIT delivery of products or services based on functional precepts. JIT activities were used to reduce work-handling steps and run times. Improvements through JIT techniques saved an average of $33,000 per month in 1990. Holistic approach to elimination of waste suppliers Few suppliers; Nearby suppliers; Repeat business with same suppliers; Active use of analysis to enable desirable suppliers to become/stay price-competitive; Clusters of remote suppliers, competitive bidding mostly limited to new part numbers; Buyer plant resists vertical integration and subsequent wipe-out of supplier business; Suppliers are encouraged to extend JIT buying to their suppliers; Quantities: Steady output rate (a desirable prerequisite); Frequent delivery in small quantities; Long-term contract agreements; Minimal release paperwork; Delivery quantities variable from release to release, but fixed for whole contract term; Little or no permissible overage or underage of receipts; Suppliers encouraged to package in exact quantities; Suppliers encouraged reducing their production lot sizes (or store unreleased material); Quality: Minimal product specifications imposed on supplier; Help suppliers to meet quality requirements; Close relationships between buyers and suppliers quality assurance people; Suppliers encouraged to use process control charts instead of lot sampling inspection; shipping: Scheduling of inbound freight; Gain control by use of company-owned or contract shipping, contract warehousing, and trailers for freight consolidation/storage where possible instead of using common carriers. Flexibility in the use of resources Bookbinder and Locke (1986) present a model to determine if JIT distribution methodology is a feasible alternative to traditional distribution methods. They investigated the behaviour of two different distribution models for JIT organizations. In the first, a factory-warehouse-retailer distribution system, the warehouse holds stock. In the second, stock moves from factory directly to retailers. The models were compared using statistical tests, and the second model was determined to be the superior distribution system because it furnished essentially the same service level to retailers while carrying one less echelon of stock. Another mathematical model is offered by Ramasesh (1990) for the implementation of JIT techniques in purchasing systems that have not yet advanced to the ultimate level of JIT purchasing (lot size of one). He treated the fixed costs associated with the adoption of JIT as investment, and justified it based on the savings generated using any of the techniques of investment analysis. He modified the traditional economic order quantity model to include explicitly the costs of small-lot shipments. He also provided guidelines and formulae for determining the order quantity and the optimal number of shipments. Case studies DHL- impact of JIT The founders began to personally ship papers by airline from San Francisco to Honolulu, beginning customs clearance of the ships cargo before the actual arrival of the ship and dramatically reducing waiting time in the harbour. With this concept, a new industry was born: international air express, the rapid delivery of documents and shipments by airplane. DHL network continued to grow at an incredible pace. The company expanded westward from Hawaii into the Far East and Pacific Rim, then the Middle East, Africa and Europe. By 1988, DHL was already present in 170 countries and had 16,000 employees. The different business units of the company are DHL Express DHL Freight DHL Global Forwarding DHL Exel Supply DHL Global Mail The process above mentioned was improved using JIT with following ways Inventory Management Concerning Services For instance, in the case of DHL, vehicles, bicycles and other assets that facilitate service delivery must be accounted for, serviced, ready and available to be used for work purpose. Quality Management Concerning Services Tangibles Reliability Responsiveness Competence Courtesy Access Supplier Relations Concerning Services Human Resource Management Concerning Services JIT in retail The key principles of JIT in any system are: No wastage, Total visibility, and Flexibility in the use of human and material resources In any environment these principles translate into three simple rules: dont start any work unless the demand signal indicates a need for more material; if the demand signal indicates a need, work to fill that need; and, never exceed the queue-size limit Automatic Replenishment Systems (ARS) is also an example of application of JIT in retail. JIT in Indian service industry A survey was done on the Indian service industry. The data was collected from the selected service industries and analyzed. The results of degree of importance are given in the table The most important element recognized by the Service industries was waste reduction (mean=0.8929). The least important element was JIDOKA (mean=0.5625). The elements of the study are mentioned in appendix table 1 JIT in hospitals Most research in the health care industry has been directed toward process and information system improvements. Generally, service environments such as health care are likely candidates for JIT if their operations are repetitive, have reasonably high volume, and deal with tangible items such as mail, checks, bills or letters. In hospitals, there is a vital department named CSSD (Centre for Sterilization Service department), the functions of which include materials management, instruments reception, washing, packing and sterilization, sterile store, instruments distribution As an illustration a previous supplier model can be analysed And compared with an improved model, which centralises and streamlines the supply chain JIT in administrative setting JIT practices and their effect on quality can be analysed Human elements of JIT Steps in implementation of JIT in service industry Eliminate disruptions in work of the employees and make the service system flexible and train the workers to handle more variety. reduce set-up time and eliminate waste including errors and duplicate work and minimise work-in process e.g. Packages waiting to be delivered, calls waiting to be answered, pending orders to be processed, trucks waiting to be loaded/unloaded Generally, service environment may benefit from jit system if the operations are repetitive, have high volume, and deal with tangible items e.g. Sandwiches, mail or bills services must involve manufacturing like operation Consistently high quality service employees can be taught the value of providing defect free services uniform facility loading reservation systems and differential pricing are ways to level the load on the facilities standardised work methods high efficiencies achieved by analysing work methods and standardising Close supplier ties volume services such as fast-food joints and mass merchandisers require close supplier contacts to ensure frequent short lead time and high quality shipment of supplies Flexible work force greater the customisation in the service, greater is the need for a multi-skilled workforce e.g. Electronic repair shops needing wider experienced workforce to diagnose the problems and repair the defects Line flow strategy mangers can recognise their employees and equipment to provide uniform flows through the system, and eliminate wasted employee time e.g. Banks use this system in their cheque processing operations Process improvement and problem solving can contribute to streamlining a system, resulting in increased customer satisfaction, and higher productivity e.g. Self service system including retail operations, ATM, vending machines, service stations etc which is the ability to provide services when required simplify the process, especially when customers are part of the system jit services , if achieved , can be a major competitive advantage for companies A Framework Appendix Table 1:

Relative Age Effect in Football

Relative Age Effect in Football Abstract The purpose of the study was to investigate the performance level at which birth date effects selection for performance pathways in English football, as well as examining whether coaches are currently implementing arrangements to limit the relative age effect. The study comprised of 2450 players from performance levels including community, grass root and academy. The birth dates of each player within every performance level were analysed through the use of statistical tools within Microsoft Excel, with interviews analysed through transcription and the highlighting of recurrent themes. The sub-groups were viewed by age group, month of birth and the total percentage of players born within each quartile of the selection year to analyse the birth bias within specific performance levels. The statistical data of each sub-group were then collated to view differences in progressing through each performance level. The main results found an over-representation of players born in the first quartile throughout each performance level. The bias within the community and grass root subgroup was 4.1%, with a 39.9% bias towards the eldest players at academy standard. The evidence highlighted that birth date only has significant impact on selection once the academy standard of play is reached, with minimal difference in impact when progressing through inferior performance levels. Coaches in the study showed high awareness of the effect, with implementation of two strategies to reduce the relative age effect being implemented. The two strategies were found to be ineffective in the reduction of the relative age effect, through implementation occurring after selection. To conclude the academy pathway highlighted the most significant bias, with birth date having minimal impact at inferior performance levels. Strategies to reduce the relative age effect are currently ineffective requiring further research into reducing the bias prior to selection. Introduction Aims To investigate the performance level at which birth date may affect selection for performance pathways in English football. To examine if football coaches are making arrangements to limit the Relative age effect in football Research Question: In English football is there a starting point to the relative age effect and if this is the case then how are football coaches currently taking this bias into consideration when working with children at all levels of football.  Ã‚   Rationale Relative age effect is the difference in ages between children in the same age group. An example being, a child born in the start of the selection period in football i.e. 1st September will be 11 months older than a player who falls in the same age group born on the 1st of August. (Barnsley et al, 1992) Throughout the study research has referred to the relative age effect as birth date and birth bias, all meaning the same. The football world is competitive and making sure that your team are developing young athletes to progress into the first team and national team is very important. This has made the selection and development of children an important aspect in youth football. Studies have progressively shown that in football there are children not given the opportunity, due to a simple aspect such as their age. (Brewer et al 1995; Cobley et al 2008; Delorme et al 2010) The research that has previously been carried out has rarely been specified around the English game with only a minority being carried out in this area. (Simmons Paull, 2001; Musch Grondin, 2001) The research has predominantly been aimed towards a number of different nations across the world. (Glamser Vincent, 2004; Jimenez, 2008; Delorme et al 2010; Campo et al 2010) The limited amount of research on the English game highlighted an area in which further study could be carried out in order to fully understand the impact the relative age effect has within English football. Correspondingly the research into the affect performance level has on the impact of the relative age effect within English football has been under-represented by preceding research. The research specific to this area of ten views different nations or sports. (Mujika et al, 2007; Cobley et al, 2009; Till et al, 2010) The knowledge of how performance level could affect selection will allow understanding of where birth bias is present and predominant, furthermore highlighting the level at which change is needed to reduce the relative age effect. The results will be of great value to coaches within the performance level that the relative age effect is most predominant by raising awareness and creating knowledge for change. Preceding research has also viewed how different organisations and football associations have tried to reduce the impact of the relative age effect in different countries. (Helson et al 2000; Vaeyens et al 2003) Although this research has shown how interventions have been made there has not been a study on how the coaches within the football clubs in these associations are practically trying to reduce the bias or in fact if they are. This is an area of research that is being analysed. This will help compare the current tools being put in place and to see if there is a working intervention to help reduce the birth bias. The context of the study will include raising awareness of the relative age effect to the coaches in which the relative age effect is most predominant within the standard at which they coach. Research has previously highlighted this to be an advantage in reducing the effect, increasing the value of the study. (Baker et al, 2010; Cobley et al, 2009)    The study begins viewing previous research on the relative age effect reviewing specifically topics around the aims and secondary topics in which can affect the predominance of the effect. The second section views the method in which the study carried out the research with reasoning and description, progressing onto the results in which are presented with the discussion following. A conclusion in relation to the aims of the study is carried out in the penultimate section, ending with self reflection discussing the learning throughout the study.     Ã‚   Literature Review 1. Relative Age Effect Children are split into age groups throughout school and whilst they are in education. In England the children are split into age groups running from nursery, primary school with years 1-6, then into secondary schools with years of 7-11. In England the school year starts in early September and runs to August (Direct.gov, 2009). This means that two children within the same year participating in educational studies and sports could have a difference of more than eleven months between them. In sport, the relative age effect was first noticed in Cana ­dian ice-hockey and volleyball. Grondin et al, (1984) found unequal birth-date distributions for males and females at recreational, competitive and senior professional levels for both sports dur ­ing the 1981/1982 season. 2. What age does the relative age effect occur? Simmons Paull (2001) are a set of researches who have previously viewed the relative age effect in England. They found that there was a bias within centre of excellences in England. In 1997 in the age groups of U-15 U16 there was seen to be a large difference within the birth dates of players participating, players oldest within the year consisted of 58.7% with just 12.7% of younger children being within these centres. Glamser, Vincent, (2004); Musch Grondin (2001) found specifically that ‘players in the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Belgium approximately 70% of elite youth players had birthdays in the first half of the soccer year. This shows that there is a bias within English football and shows that the age effect occurs highly in these ages. The relative age effect does not just occur within England. Del Campo et al (2010) viewed the relative age effect within Spain. The research that was carried out found that the relative age effect occurred through age groups including under 11s to 18s. The players within the teams included within the research consisted of a minimum of 45% of players born within the first trimester, with only a maximum of 15% of the players coming from the fourth trimester. This shows that throughout each age group the difference between the players born early in the year and the ones later in the year was 30% in favour to the players born in the early stages of the selection period. Williams, (2009) study on the U-17 World Cup also suggests that the relative age effect is continued into not just the older age groups but also into senior international teams. Williams (2009) looked at all the players participating within the tournament and found a large difference in the months of when the players were born. The study found that, ‘Nearly 40% of the players are born in the first three months of the year while only 16% are born in the last quarter. Dudink (1994) research supports the research carried out by Williams (2009) into evidence that the relative age effect progresses through all age groups. Dudink (1994) claimed that both Dutch and English players born early in the competition year are more likely to participate in national soccer leagues. This research not only suggests that the relative age effect occurs through childhood and adolescence but also occurs through to adulthood. 3. Why does the relative age effect occur? Research has shown many reasons behind why there are biases towards players who are older than their peers. (Delorme Raspaud, 2009: Musch and Grondin, 2001). Musch and Grondin, (2001) suggests that ‘as children are separated into age groups there are regularly cognitive, physical and emotional differences between the youngest and oldest. Research backing up this is seen from Malina et al,(2004) who states there are ‘advantages in body size, fat free mass and several components of physical fitness including aerobic power, muscular strength, power, endurance, and speed. This means that there is a difference within all aspects of a character within players in the same year. It has been sug ­gested that the size of the relative age effect may be affect ­ed by additional maturational variation at ages associated with the onset of puber ­ty, generally applicable at the ages of 13-15 in boys and 12-14 in girls (Musch Grondin, 2001). This meaning that puberty is a large s ection of a players selection/development process in which could affect the number of players who are chosen. Helsen et al (2000) found that relative age effect was present within children aged as young as 8. As players develop differently at different stages this would suggest the younger players would have a larger disadvantage at the stage of puberty. Research from Gil et al, (2007b) found when looking at the selection of young soccer players in terms of anthropometric and physiological factors found that during puberty the players selected were taller, heavier, leaner and faster than the non-selected players and that a high percentage of those chosen were found to be born within the first 6 months of the year. Helsen et al, (2000) looked at the possible difference between two players within the same selection year: ‘A 10-year-old child in the 5th percentile is likely to be 1.26 m tall with a body mass of 22 kg, whereas a child in the 95th percentile who is almost 11 years of age is likely to be 1.54 m tall and 49 kg in mass. This shows that one player could be as much as 0.3m taller and 27kg heavier than a player placed in the same selection year showing a clear advantage physically towards the older player. Along with maturation levels studies have shown that the playing position of a player also has an effect. Ashworth and Heyndels (2007) noted the relative age effect var ­ied according to playing position in elite German soccer. The strongest effect sizes were found for goalkeepers and defend ­ers, with relative age effects not evident for forwards. Research carried out by Gil et al, (2007a) found that goalkeepers and defenders are on average are the tallest players being five centre meters taller than both the midfielders and attackers. This with the research found from Malina et al., (2004) shows that it could be very difficult for the younger players to achieve selection within these positions. Research by Gil et al, (2007a) also progresses on to further back up research from Malina et al, (2004) as when viewing players who were in the selection process, players who had better endurance, were faster and in some instances taller were primarily selected. Although there were stati stical information found within research from Gil et al, (2007a) looking further into the study there were also instances in which the research challenged the statement by Malina et al,(2004) in which they stated players who were faster and taller for example had an advantage. Gil et al (2007a) found that when viewing players who were selected and those not, it turned out that the non selected players were taller faster and had superior endurance. Examples being that the goalkeepers non-selected were four centre meters taller, 0.3 seconds faster than the selected players. The research found that in midfield where players are seen to run the most which in turn means they need to have greater endurance levels the non selected players were found to have lower heart rates after an endurance test. (Gil et al, 2007a) This research highlights evidence contesting the advantages older children are perceived to possess. 4. The effect on participation levels Researchers have also viewed that the relative age effect can make players drop out of sport. Delorme et al (2010), suggests that the players born later within the year ‘experience inferiority and failure within their practice and may be reduced to less playing time. Vaeyens et al (2005) also had similar thoughts and stated that the reason why the relative age effect relates to the players dropping out is due to the older players receiving more playing time than the younger players. This leading to the younger players feeling less competent and increasing the possibility of them dropping out of the sport.   Cobley et al (2009) noted that the size of the relative age effect increased with age un ­til late adolescence, but then decreased in adult sporting contexts meaning that if the players who are born in the younger part of the year, who carry on in sport have a good chance of being selected to play at a high standard, contesting research carried out by Williams (2009) and Dudink (1994). While Musch and Grondin (2001), stated that; ‘The relative age effect is not only thought to generate discrimination in the selection process, but also to lead to dropout among less advantaged players   (i.e. those born at the end of the year) Delorme et al, (2010) found that the rates of drop outs in French football were highest within players in the last two quarters of the year. This means that although Cobley et al, (2009) found that the relative age effect decreases into adulthood the number of the late born players progressing through to that stage is low. Research by Delorme et al, (2010) supports research by Cobley et al (2009) as they found the number of players dropping out in French adult football was higher within the players born early within the year with a number of 1,612 players dropping out more than the late born players.   Although this can be seen from the research, Delorme et al (2010) also show that the number of players born late in the years that are dropping out is higher throughout the ages of 9 15. This means that a high number of players born within the last part of the year have already dropped out implying that as the years progress the number of players that can drop out have reduced significantly. 5. Does the level of play affect the relative age effect? Research from Mujika et al, (2007) views similar areas to the one carried out in this study with the difference of them viewing this within Spanish football. They viewed the difference between the relative age effect at different levels of football within Spain. The levels they viewed were players from La Liga (Spains highest division) club AC Bilbao, Elite youth from AC Bilbao, Regional Youth and School Youth. The research found that players born in the first quarter of the selection period decreased as did the level of football, after the La Liga players group who had 43.9%. Elite youth players consisted of 46.6% of players in the first quarter, the regional youth group consisted of 28.6% whilst the school youth group had the lowest percentage at 27.1%. These statistics show that throughout youth football the relative age effect increases, slightly decreasing when reaching the highest level of football although only by 2.1%. They also found that players in the last quarter were fou nd mostly in the School Youth subgroup consisting 22.9%, decreasing to 21.2% in the regional youth group, then significantly decreasing to just 10% of players within the Elite youth subgroup, finishing with a very slight increase in the number of players within the La Liga group of 2.2% to a total of 12.2% of players being within the last quarter. This again shows that there is a bias throughout the progression in performance level within Spanish football.   Cobley et al (2009) viewed performance level in relation to the size of the relative age effect among similar levels to the current study. Cobley et al (2009) found that the largest bias towards the oldest players was found within players that participate within the representative stage. This stage related to the level below the elite stage which was viewed to be the highest level in the study. Cobley et al (2009) progressed to suggest that the level that players partake within has an effect on the size of the relative age effect. The relative age effect was found to increase within each progression in performance level until the optimal performance level is reached comparable to the findings by Mujika et al (2007) Till et al (2010) viewed the relative age effect within rugby league players, similar to Mujika et al (2007) they found that as the performance level increases as does the impact of the relative age effect.   In the study throughout each increase in performance level there was an increase in the size of the relative age effect. The highest bias towards the eldest players found was 61.34%, this statistic was found within the under 13s age group. The research highlights that the birth bias is affected by skill/performance level not just within football but also other sporting environments.  Ã‚   6. Is being young an advantage? While previous research has shown a bias towards the players born early within a selection period, there is research suggesting that if the later born players successfully progress through and become professional players they can be at an advantage. Ashworth and Heyndels (2007) found that players who were seen as being born in the later period of selection had higher wages than the players born in the early period. When looking at German football players during the 97-98 and 98-99 seasons, players born in the cut off month of August 1st earned 2 million deutschemarks where players born later in the selection period earn up to 2.8 million deutschemarks. Ashworth and Heyndels (2007) stated that this occurred when the later born players played in a high standard soccer education programme. The later born players benefited playing with the early born players or perceived better players, enhancing their development as young players benefit from playing alongside or against superior player s. They further progress to imply that for the later born players to succeed throughout the selection process, when younger they must have above average talent. 7. Can the relative age effect be decreased? Research has viewed the possibilities of whether a change in selection dates will correct the bias that occurs within football. The Royal Belgian Football Association changed their cut off date in 1997 to reduce the impact of the relative age effect, but the shift from August the 1st to the 1st January just meant a shift in the Bias. (Vaeyens et al, 2005) Similarly research has viewed Japans competition year which begins on 1st April and the bias is observed in May and July, Germany and Brazil produce similar distributions with a start date of 1 August. In each case, the season-of-birth bias aligns with whichever quarter is earliest in the competition year. (Simmons and Paull, 2001) Fifa and Uefa have also been seen to prolong the selection period for players in order to make it fairer. Research found that the number of players within teams that were looked at had more players in a wider range of months but there was still a bias to the younger players in the selection process. (Helson et al, 2005) Although footballs attempt to shift the selection dates has seen little or slight improvements in producing equality into the selection process, varying the cut off dates for selection in sports has before been seen as a way of being successful in reducing if not preventing relative age effect. For example in swimming they have no cut off date. Ryan (1989) stated this would be successful if key competitions were avoided within certain months. Although this may work for individual sports such as swimming has been seen to not be applicable in team sports. (Musch Grondin, 2001) This shows that there is a possibility of reducing the relative age effect. The results and interventions found and used in other nations will help when aiming to reduce the impact which may be found within the English game and to see if there are any differences between England and the other Nations. Although these have been used to try and reduce the relative age effect in the sport few research have gone into what the coaches can do. Cobley et al (2009) suggested that just raising awareness of those responsible for the infrastructure and coordination of youth sport may be effective. Baker et al (2010) also suggested that increasing awareness and under ­standing of the relative age effect, as part of coach training and education programs, may help centre coaches attention to the potential selection bi ­as. Methodology Sample The study comprised of a total of 2540 football players, ranging from the under 9 to under 15 age category within England. The players were allocated to one of three sub groups relating to their standard of play within the sport. The Academy group perceived as the highest level within the study consisted of a total number of 416players who played for an academy football team at the time of the study. The Grass root group consisted of 354players who played for a FA Chartered team. The third subgroup contained players who played recreational football within a community scheme that related to the lowest standard of play within the study. The total number of players in the recreational sub group was 1770.   Area 1 The study required the birth dates of football players within age groups from U-9 to U-15. The players were chosen from community football, grass root football to academy football. The players were then sub-divided into secondary groups of grass root team players, community players and academy players. The details of the players were collected through contacting teams from the respective leagues through the use of letters. These letters detailed the information required from the clubs and how the results of the information would be used. Area 2 There were a number of coaches selected to undertake an interview. The coaches were chosen from the category in which the largest relative age effect was found from area one which was within the academy standard. The number of coaches chosen was four and this was due to limited time. The coaches selected were based on accessibility. Prior to interview the coaches were provided information regarding to the research in which is to be carried out. (Appendix 1.1)   Data Collection There are two types of research, these are qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research involves ‘researches describing kinds of characteristics of people and events without the use of measurements or amounts. (Thomas, 2003). Quantitative research involves ‘measurements and amounts of the characteristics displayed by people and events. (Thomas, 2003).  Ã‚  Ã‚   The data that will be collected will be both qualitative and quantitative. The quantitative data will be collected through primary research. Individual clubs from each area and age group were contacted through a letter which included the details of what the study will involve, the information needed and ethical considerations. The letter was sent to the coaches of the grass root teams, the academy managers and the chief executive of the community scheme. This data collection method was chosen to save time which is limited and through previous research having successfully acquired similar data. (Diaz Del Campo, 2010)   Grass root team players are players from teams who were found to be FA chartered and within division A of their respected leagues. The recreational players came from a local community scheme located in South Yorkshire. The academy players were selected from a number of professional academy teams. The players and teams that were selected were based on accessibility and convenience. The teams that were chosen were local teams based within South Yorkshire, as money and time limitations would not enable collecting data from teams located in different regions.   The teams were presented with a sample research response sheet in which they entered the necessary information required for the study. (Appendix 1.2, 1.3, 1.4) To collect the data from the coaches structured interviews were carried out involving a number of open and probing questions. (Appendix 1.5) Open ended questions were used to allow the interviewee to provide more detail, rather than a one word answer from a closed question. The open ended questions allowed the interviewee to communicate using their own language and this takes you into their own world to view the area from their perspective. (Johnson Christensen, 2011). This would add value to the study information being reliable. (Johnson Christensen, 2011). The interviews were recorded through the use of a Dictaphone to reduce the risk of missing information and this enabled re analysis to ensure all important data was processed. Although a Dictaphone can help in recording the interviews, they can also have changed the behaviour of the interviewee and the answers they gave. (Silk et al, 2005) The interviewer made sure the coach was comfortable before progressing with the interview to enable reliable results could be collected and the coachs responses werent systematic and fictitious.   Structured interviews will be used as the reliability of the interviews will be increased. (Hersen et al 2007) When looking at the purpose of the study which is to see if the coaches are aware of the relative age effect and what they are doing about it, the coaches could diverse into different areas if a structured path is not in place similar to a semi structured interview. (Hersen et al 2007) Although when designing this interview considerations such as making sure all areas needed are covered were considered to ensure the responses did not divulge into unnecessary areas. (Hersen et al 2007). The questions started with short and easy questions in which they could comfortably answer in order not to scare them and make them feel comfortable. (Johnson Christensen, 2011) The interview then progressed onto more sensitive questions in which were placed once the interviewee felt comfortable and had given alot of their time to the interview reducing the possibility of fictitious responses being given. (Johnson Christensen, 2011). Questionnaires were not used as a tool to collect this data as questionnaires could be returned incomplete and also could be found as being ambiguous. This would lead to incomplete data and unreliable sources. (Gratton Jones, 2005) Data Analysis Analysing data from the birth dates of players, each teams data that was collected were placed into the categories assigned for them (Community, grass root and academy). The different age groups were separately analysed to highlight which age group had the largest relative age effect. The birth dates were organised into sub categories, these were the birth months of the players. These sub categories are; September to November, December to February, March to May and June to August. These categories have been used in previous studies, (Simmons Paull, 2001) and using these will give an area of comparison. The statistics will then show in which area the birth bias is evident and the different impact of the bias within different levels of the sport. Percentages of which players are born within each month will be produced giving a statistic which can be easily be compared. The statistical analysis tools within Microsoft Excel were used to create the data throughout the study.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚   The data collected through the structured interviews were analysed by transcription of the interviews, in which throughout this key themes could be formed to help seek whether there are current similarities in how coaches are selecting players and strategies minimizing the impact of the relative age effect. (Appendix 1.6) Any interventions being inputted by coaches were highlighted and used to compare what coaches are doing to overcome the relative age effect in their teams currently. Direct quotes seen as aiding research and results of the research are highlighted within the main body to provide evidence. Ethical Considerations Throughout the research of the study ethical issues will be considered throughout. When collecting data for the birth dates of players, the managers of the grass roots teams, chief executive of the community scheme and academy managers were told specifically what they will be partaking within and what information is needed from them. (Appendix 1.7)To keep the players details confidential all that was required were the birth dates of the child, as this will keep personal details which are not required safe and ensured the research could not be related back to any specific person. Consent forms were included to evidence their cooperation within the study. (Appendix 1.2, 1.3, 1.4) When giving information the use of a data template in which the teams filled out to make sure only the necessary information is given was used. The collection of data for the interviews will include specifically explaining verbally and documenting what the coaches will be partaking within, and where the results of the research will be used with consent forms highlighting their cooperation within the study. (Appendix 1.9)The necessary resources needed to carry out the interviews were accessed prior to the interviews, such as Dictaphones and interview rooms. (Appendix 2.0). The information collected from the coaches was specific to the research needs and the only information needed personally from the coach was of what club they are involved with. The information gathered through the interview was only viewed by the researcher and the MIS Supervisor. Questions were designed prior to the interviews to enable ethical approval on them. (Appendix 1.5) It was made aware to all parties involved within the research project that there was ethical approval approved by an appropriate representative of the Faculty Research Ethics Committee at Leeds Metropolitan University and that if any issues arise they will be informed to ensure confidence in the divulgence of research. This was done through the completion of necessary forms, such as risk assessment (Appendix 2.1) local level approval . The r

Domestic Violence Facts and Myths :: Violence Against Women Essays

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Philosophy of Education Essay -- Philosophy of Teaching Education Teac

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